Cardiovascular complications of chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD), defined by low estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), is common and a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). The risk rises with decline in eGFR and is maximal (around 20 times that of the general population) in patients with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) requiring dialysis. Conventional factors such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, smoking and hyperlipidaemia contribute to the risk of progressive CKD and CVD. Other factors including proteinuria, left ventricular hypertrophy, impaired calcium–phosphate homeostasis (PTH, FGF-23), anaemia and inflammation, contribute to cardiovascular risk in this population.